Journal of Urban Studies on Space and Place

Abstract  
Over the past few decades, the urban fabric surrounding the Holy Shrine of Imam Reza (AS) in Mashhad has undergone extensive redevelopment. These transformations have largely prioritised infrastructural capacity, accessibility, and crowd management in response to the growing scale of pilgrimage. While such measures have improved logistical performance and service provision, they have also contributed to a progressive weakening of the experiential and meaning-laden dimensions of pilgrimage. Large-scale demolition, functional zoning, traffic-oriented design, and commercially driven development have increasingly disrupted the relational continuity between human presence, spatial structure, and the sacred meanings historically embedded in the pilgrimage environment. As a result, many of the spaces surrounding the shrine now operate primarily as corridors of movement rather than as places of gradual approach, bodily attunement, and spiritual preparation.
Within culture-oriented, place-based approaches to urban regeneration, this research proposes a meaning-based framework for regenerating the spaces and places surrounding the shrine, grounded in the theoretical concept of the Field of Appresentation. Drawing on phenomenological traditions, appresentation is understood as the process through which absent meanings—such as memory, belief, and transcendence—are made experientially present through bodily perception, spatial cues, and cultural practices. From this perspective, sacred urban space is not a passive container of symbols, but an active field in which meaning is continuously constituted through the interplay of perception, action, memory, and belief. Accordingly, the erosion of pilgrimage experience cannot be addressed through formal or aesthetic interventions alone, but requires reconfiguring the appresentational conditions that allow sacred meaning to emerge and be sustained in lived experience.
Methodologically, the study adopts a mixed qualitative–quantitative design with a phenomenological and context-sensitive orientation. The objective is not statistical generalisation, but an in-depth, situated understanding of how meaning is appresented along pilgrimage routes leading to the shrine. Data were collected through document analysis, participant observation, semi-structured interviews, sensory–spatial mapping, and GIS-supported analysis. Twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted with pilgrims, shrine servants, long-term residents, and local shopkeepers, selected through purposive sampling to capture diverse experiential positions within the pilgrimage field. In parallel, nine key nodes along the main pilgrimage routes—primarily thresholds, pauses, and ritual movement junctions—were identified as focal points for detailed field investigation.
The analytical framework organises data around four interrelated experiential domains that structure the Field of Appresentation: environment, ritual, memory, and belief. The environmental domain addresses multi-sensory qualities such as light, sound, materiality, crowd density, and microclimate. The ritual domain examines embodied practices of movement, pause, prayer, and collective synchronisation. The memory domain explores personal and collective recollections, including perceptions of historical continuity, loss, and attachment to place. The belief domain focuses on subjective experiences of sacred presence, spiritual proximity, and moments of intensified or diminished transcendence. Through triangulation of interview narratives, observational records, video-based behavioural analysis, and spatial data, the study constructs a layered reading of how these four domains interact to present meaning within the pilgrimage environment.
The findings indicate that the contemporary crisis of the shrine’s surrounding spaces can be understood through four interrelated forms of rupture: sensory rupture, manifested in overstimulation, noise, and loss of atmospheric calm; performative rupture, reflected in the disruption of ritual rhythms by traffic flows and commercial pressures; temporal rupture, marked by the erasure of historical layers and weakening of continuity between past and present pilgrimage practices; and inner rupture, characterised by a reduced capacity for introspection, spiritual focus, and felt sacred presence. Crucially, the analysis demonstrates that interventions limited to physical form or infrastructural efficiency are insufficient to repair these ruptures, as they fail to engage the deeper appresentational mechanisms through which meaning is constituted.
In response, the Field of Appresentation model reframes the shrine’s surroundings as a multi-layered experiential field in which meaning emerges through reciprocal activation. Bodily perception appresents absent sacred referents; ritual practices synchronise individual and collective presence; memory anchors experience within a temporal continuum; and belief modulates the intensity and orientation of perception. Meaning-based urban regeneration, in this sense, is defined not as the restoration of a fixed historical image, but as the recalibration of appresentational conditions that enable these processes to operate coherently in contemporary contexts.
On this basis, the study translates the four experiential domains into a set of design-oriented principles applicable to urban regeneration and architectural intervention. These include reinforcing ritual continuity along pilgrimage routes, enhancing the legibility of collective memory through spatial and material cues, moderating sensory conditions within threshold spaces to support bodily and emotional attunement, and promoting forms of spatial justice that balance the needs of pilgrims, residents, and local economies. Rather than prescribing deterministic solutions, the framework functions as a flexible design logic that guides planners and architects in aligning spatial decisions with appresentational processes of meaning-making.
Ultimately, the research argues that regeneration in sacred urban contexts should be understood as a dynamic and adaptive process aimed at restoring meaningful presence rather than merely improving spatial performance. By foregrounding the Field of Appresentation as the core analytical and design framework, the study offers a systematic way to reconnect human experience, spatial structure, and sacred meaning in the spaces and places surrounding the Holy Shrine of Imam Reza (AS). Beyond the specific case of Mashhad, the proposed approach contributes to broader debates on sacred space, phenomenology, and meaning-based urban regeneration by demonstrating how experiential theory can be rigorously translated into spatial analysis and design practice.
 

Abstract Introduction
Public spaces are key venues for social gatherings, participation, and collective expression, playing a crucial role in fostering collective identity and enhancing social well-being (El-Bardisy, 2024: 3). They also provide a context for analyzing human behavior through interpersonal spacing, or proxemics, which classifies distances into four zones: intimate (0–0.45 m), personal (0.45–1.2 m), social (1.2–3.6 m), and public (>3.6 m) (Hall, 1966). Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan, Iran, is one of the most prominent historical public spaces in the country, hosting both locals and tourists and offering a unique setting for studying socio-spatial interactions. Previous studies have primarily focused on the historical, architectural, and physical aspects of the square, while micro-scale analyses of user interactions and interpersonal spacing patterns remain limited (Babazadeh Asbagh, 2024: 3–8; Radahmadi et al., 1399: 5–12). This study aims to address this gap by investigating two primary questions: 1) What are the spatial patterns and interpersonal distances in Naqsh-e Jahan Square according to Hall’s proxemics model? 2) How do these patterns vary across morning, afternoon, and night periods? Understanding these patterns is essential to inform user-centered design and management, improve social interactions, and support sustainable tourism in historical urban spaces.
Theoretical Framework
This study is grounded in Edward Hall’s proxemics theory, which highlights the role of interpersonal distances in regulating social behavior (Hall, 1966). The theory has been extended to urban public spaces, where environmental and physical conditions, alongside cultural norms, influence behavior. Complementary concepts such as territoriality—primary (fixed), secondary (temporary), and public (open)—explain how users create informal boundaries through spatial positioning and clustering. Fixed features such as pathways, fountains, and iwans structure movement and spatial organization, while semi-fixed elements like seating areas, furniture, and shading regulate density, proximity, and social interaction. In Naqsh-e Jahan Square, the convergence of local cultural norms and tourism-driven dynamics requires an adapted proxemics framework that considers lighting, shading, crowd density, and temporal fluctuations. This augmented approach demonstrates that interpersonal distances result from the interaction between social norms and environmental affordances, positioning public spaces as “living behavioral models” in which user feedback informs iterative spatial design and management.
Methodology
A mixed–methods approach was employed to examine interpersonal spacing and user behavior in Naqsh-e Jahan Square. The study population included tourists, local residents, families, couples, and solitary users. Data collection occurred in June 2025 over three distinct day types—a weekday, a near-holiday day, and a holiday—across three time slots each day (morning 9:00–12:00, afternoon 16:00–19:00, and night 20:00–23:00), producing nine observational sessions in total. Key observation points included the central pool edges, the area in front of Ali Qapu Palace, the northern, eastern, and western platforms, the mosque entrances, and the iwans. A systematic, non-intrusive observation method ensured the natural behavior of users. An observation checklist captured variables such as time, location, social composition, dominant activity (sitting, standing, wandering, eating, cycling, vending, etc.), interpersonal distance (coded per Hall’s four zones), interaction type, and environmental conditions, including crowd density. Distances were estimated using the square’s flooring units (~50 cm each). In total, 380 social groups and individuals were recorded. Behavioral maps were created for morning, afternoon, and night to integrate observations for qualitative analysis. Quantitative analysis employed descriptive statistics (mean distances, activity distributions), while qualitative analysis involved map interpretation and environmental notes. Reliability and validity were ensured through repeated observations and dual coding.
Results and Discussion
Findings indicate that interpersonal spacing patterns are strongly influenced by day type, time of day, and environmental and physical factors. On low-density weekdays, social and public distances dominate, with individual, transient behavior prevalent. In contrast, near-holiday and holiday periods show higher density, reduced distances, and more intimate interactions. Users actively create secondary territories, particularly along the central pool, peripheral platforms, and shaded zones, while open transitional areas remain primarily public. Fixed elements structure movement and clustering, whereas semi-fixed elements such as furniture, seating, and shade regulate density, distance, and interaction opportunities. Hall’s model alone is insufficient for fully explaining behavior in Iranian public spaces; environmental and spatial components must be integrated. Behavioral mapping revealed that shaded, furnished areas accommodate higher density and closer interactions, while open sunlit areas maintain larger interpersonal distances. The findings align with patterns observed in global public spaces but also reflect local socio-cultural and tourism-related dynamics, emphasizing the importance of context-specific adaptation in public space design.
Conclusion
Naqsh-e Jahan Square functions as a “living behavioral model,” where user behaviors interact with environmental affordances to shape social experiences. Integrating Hall’s proxemics model with spatial and environmental variables provides a practical framework for analyzing and designing user-centered historical public spaces. By adjusting furniture layouts, lighting, shading, zoning, and pathways based on observed behaviors, overcrowding can be reduced and social interactions enhanced. This study contributes to the localization of proxemics theory and offers practical guidance for sustainable, inclusive, and context-aware urban planning in Iran, ensuring that historical public spaces meet real user needs while supporting social vitality and cultural continuity.
 

Abstract Introduction:
The conservation of heritage spaces, particularly in historical urban contexts, is a central challenge for contemporary urban governance and cultural sustainability. Such spaces embody not only architectural and aesthetic values but also the collective memory and social identity of communities. The historic bazaar of Tabriz, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site, exemplifies a living cultural organism in which economic, social, and cultural functions are intricately intertwined. Within this dynamic environment, social interactions, networks of trust, and shared norms play a critical role in maintaining both the tangible and intangible dimensions of heritage continuity.
While the concept of social capital has been widely discussed in urban sociology and cultural heritage studies, its classical forms—defined by stable networks and long-term trust—do not fully account for the transient and flexible relations that characterize complex urban markets. In this regard, this research introduces the novel theoretical concept of Fluid Social Capital (FSC), which captures the adaptable, temporary, and situational social relations that emerge in dynamic heritage spaces. Unlike conventional social capital that relies on durable relationships, FSC operates through flexible alliances, short-term collaborations, and spontaneous interactions that respond to contextual shifts in urban life.
The study focuses on the historic bazaar of Tabriz as an ideal empirical case to examine how fluid social capital functions within heritage environments, shaping collective behaviors and supporting heritage conservation through evolving social networks. The central research question guiding this study is:
“To what extent can fluid social capital influence and enhance the conservation and revitalization of historic urban bazaars, particularly the Tabriz Bazaar?”
This research thus aims to conceptualize, operationalize, and empirically test the notion of fluid social capital in relation to heritage protection, providing a theoretical and practical framework for policymakers, cultural managers, and urban planners involved in heritage-led urban regeneration.
Theoretical Framework:
The foundation of this study lies in the reinterpretation of classical social capital theories within the context of heritage conservation. According to Bourdieu, social capital represents the aggregate of actual or potential resources linked to durable networks of mutual recognition and institutionalized relationships. Coleman emphasized its role as a facilitator of collective action through norms of reciprocity and trust, while Putnam highlighted its contribution to civic engagement and democratic governance.
However, in heritage spaces such as the Tabriz Bazaar—where actors continuously shift, interactions are fluid, and the balance between tradition and modernity is constantly negotiated—these classical definitions prove inadequate. Fluid social capital expands the conceptual boundaries by accounting for temporary, situational, and adaptive relationships that generate resilience and cooperation under conditions of uncertainty.
The bazaar functions as a complex socio-spatial system where trust, cooperation, and identity are not static but continuously reconstituted. Therefore, the study proposes that FSC operates through three main dimensions:
-Network Flexibility – the ability of social networks to reorganize and adapt to changing economic or cultural conditions;
-Temporary and Multi-Actor Interactions – short-term collaborations that bridge different stakeholders such as merchants, municipal actors, and heritage institutions;
-Cultural Reproduction and Social Cohesion – the ongoing reinforcement of
shared norms, values, and traditions that sustain collective identity.
These dimensions collectively contribute to the resilience of heritage spaces, enabling them to respond to economic pressures, social change, and modernization challenges without losing their historical essence. The theoretical framework thus integrates the idea of social fluidity into heritage governance, presenting FSC as both an analytical lens and a practical tool for adaptive management of urban heritage.
Methodology:
This study adopts an integrated mixed-method approach (qualitative–quantitative) to capture both the depth and breadth of social dynamics within the Tabriz Bazaar.
Qualitative Phase
The qualitative phase involved semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with 10 key experts in architecture, urban planning, and cultural heritage management, as well as representatives of local communities and bazaar stakeholders. Data were coded and analyzed using MAXQDA software using a thematic analysis approach. The aim was to identify and categorize emergent themes related to the formation and operation of fluid social capital within heritage spaces.
The analysis revealed that “network flexibility” and “temporary cooperation” appeared most frequently in interview codes, indicating their central role in the dynamics of the bazaar’s social system. These findings provided the empirical basis for constructing the quantitative instrument.
Quantitative Phase
Based on the qualitative results, a structured questionnaire was designed using a five-point Likert scale to measure perceptions and experiences of FSC components among 150 participants, including merchants, cultural actors, and heritage managers in the bazaar. The questionnaire's reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha (α = 0.89), indicating high internal consistency. Data were analyzed through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to examine the relationships between FSC components and heritage conservation outcomes.
The structural model included three independent latent variables (network flexibility, temporary interaction, and cultural reproduction) and one dependent latent variable (heritage conservation). The SEM results demonstrated a high level of model fit (CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.045), indicating strong relationships among the constructs.
Results and Discussion:
Findings indicate that network flexibility is the most influential component, enabling adaptive collaborations and coordination. Temporary multi-stakeholder interactions support conflict resolution and joint decision-making, while cultural reproduction maintains social cohesion. SEM analysis confirmed the positive and significant impact of all components on heritage conservation (p < 0.05), illustrating how fluid social capital integrates traditional practices with modern urban demands to enhance resilience and sustainability. The results further reveal that stakeholders with higher participation in flexible networks demonstrated stronger commitment to heritage protection and collaborative management. This underscores the value of dynamic social relations in facilitating participatory governance and long-term heritage vitality.
Conclusion:
Fluid social capital offers a novel lens for heritage management, highlighting dynamic, adaptive networks that foster trust, collaboration, and resilience. In the Tabriz Historical Bazaar, this approach facilitates sustainable preservation while accommodating contemporary pressures, providing a practical model for heritage conservation in historic urban contexts globally. The study concludes that incorporating fluid social capital into urban policy frameworks can bridge the gap between institutional strategies and community-based practices, fostering inclusive governance and sustainable cultural continuity.
 

Abstract Rapid urbanization and the resulting spatial polarization have become defining features of contemporary metropolitan development, particularly in historic urban cores of developing countries, where the legacy of uneven growth has intensified spatial injustices. In this context, Tehran’s District 12—the city’s historical nucleus and a repository of cultural heritage—presents a critical case of spatial inequality, physical deterioration, and social vulnerability. While this district remains a vital economic and symbolic center of the capital, its neighborhoods exhibit severe disparities in livability, shaped by cumulative deficiencies in infrastructure, public services, and environmental quality. These inequalities challenge the sustainability and equity of urban development and call for analytical frameworks that capture the multidimensional nature of urban livability through the lens of spatial justice. Against this background, the present research seeks to assess and rank neighborhood livability in District 12 of Tehran using a justice-oriented framework that integrates objective and subjective dimensions of urban quality. The central question guiding the study is: to what extent do spatial disparities in livability reflect systemic inequalities in the distribution of opportunities, resources, and social capital across neighborhoods, and how can these disparities inform context-sensitive urban policy?
 
This study adopts a quantitative, positivist, and survey-based approach designed to operationalize the complex construct of livability into empirically measurable dimensions. Quantitative data were collected from 385 residents across 13 neighborhoods using a researcher-designed questionnaire with proven validity and reliability (Cronbach’s alpha > 0.7), complemented by secondary data from official documents and spatial analyses. The analytical framework consisted of two main stages: first, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were employed to validate the measurement model, derive factor loadings, and determine the relative weights of the five key dimensions of livability—physical quality and infrastructure, economic capability and spatial equity, social and cultural capital, environmental sustainability, and safety and social welfare. Second, a multi-criteria decision-making method (TOPSIS) was applied to integrate the weighted indicators and produce a composite livability score for each neighborhood. The integration of SEM and TOPSIS yielded a robust, data-driven ranking that accounts for both the statistical significance of indicators and their spatial interrelations.
The results reveal a pronounced pattern of spatial heterogeneity and polarization across the district. The neighborhoods of Sangalaj (score: 0.281) and Iran (0.271) achieved the highest overall livability scores, while Shahid Herandi (-0.285) and Ghiyam (-0.202) were identified as critical zones of deprivation. SEM path coefficients indicate that physical quality (β = 0.762) and local social capital (β = 0.751) exert the strongest influence on overall livability, followed by safety and health (β = 0.683), economic capability (β = 0.648), and environmental sustainability (β = 0.617). These findings suggest that livability in Tehran’s historical core is driven less by economic affluence and more by the interplay of physical infrastructure and social cohesion. The spatial distribution pattern, characterized by central and northern neighborhoods outperforming southern and peripheral ones, substantiates the theoretical propositions of spatial justice (Harvey, 1973; Soja, 2010), which hold that the inequitable allocation of urban resources reproduces localized geographies of privilege and exclusion.
Beyond statistical confirmation, the study provides a nuanced spatial interpretation: neighborhoods exhibiting balanced development across all five dimensions (such as Iran and Sangalaj) serve as models of adaptive resilience, whereas those with fragmented profiles—high social cohesion but weak infrastructure (e.g., Ferdowsi), or strong physical assets but social deprivation (e.g., Baharestan)—underscore the multidimensional and context-dependent nature of urban livability. This differentiation underscores the need for localized, cluster-based policy responses rather than uniform citywide interventions. Accordingly, the research proposes a four-tier policy classification—leading, intermediate, deprived, and critical neighborhoods—to prioritize investment and guide integrated urban regeneration strategies. Immediate intervention is deemed essential in critical neighborhoods such as Shahid Herandi and Ghiyam, where cumulative deprivation across all dimensions threatens both social stability and urban identity.
From a theoretical standpoint, the findings advance the integration of spatial justice into empirical livability assessment by demonstrating how unequal spatial distributions of physical and social assets materialize as lived disparities in urban experience. The use of SEM-TOPSIS as a combined analytical framework bridges the gap between statistical rigor and spatial interpretation, offering a replicable model for other historical and socioeconomically diverse urban areas. In practical terms, the results highlight that enhancing neighborhood livability requires concurrent attention to both tangible and intangible assets: investment in public infrastructure and housing quality must be paralleled by efforts to strengthen local networks, civic participation, and trust. This aligns with global discourses emphasizing participatory governance and community-based urban planning as key instruments for equitable urban transformation.
Overall, the study concludes that achieving livability in contexts of entrenched spatial inequality is not merely a technical or infrastructural challenge but a normative and political endeavor grounded in the pursuit of spatial justice. Sustainable improvement in Tehran’s District 12 demands a shift from top-down, growth-oriented planning to neighborhood-centered governance models that acknowledge local identities, empower residents, and redistribute urban opportunities. Such an approach transforms livability from a static index of amenities into a dynamic expression of social equity, resilience, and collective well-being. The conceptual and methodological contributions of this research thus extend beyond the empirical case, offering a framework adaptable to other historic urban cores confronting similar tensions between heritage preservation, social equity, and spatial justice.
 

Abstract Introduction
Analysis of the Green City Knowledge Map using the VOSviewer tool identifies research gaps in this field. The results of these analyses show that while most studies address environmental and land-use issues, the social, cultural, and economic dimensions of the green city have not been adequately addressed. This gap underscores the need for more comprehensive research to establish the necessary balance among the different dimensions of sustainable development. VOSviewer also highlights that most studies in this field have been conducted in Western countries and in English, and studies in developing regions with different cultural and climatic conditions are not sufficiently available. This geographical imbalance in knowledge production can lead to incorrect generalizations and inappropriate policy design in regions with different conditions. Therefore, this is considered a major research gap in the field of green cities. Finally, the results of the green city knowledge maps using VOSviewer show that the connections between different knowledge areas (such as architecture, urban planning, environment, urban economics, etc.) are not yet well established. This points to the need for interdisciplinary, integrated research to address the complex challenges of today's cities with a comprehensive approach. Therefore, identifying these gaps can be a basis for guiding the future of green city research.
Theoretical framework
Green cities are defined as cities that strive to reduce their environmental impact by reducing waste, expanding recycling, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing housing density while expanding open space, and encouraging the development of sustainable local businesses. A green city is one in which all forms of nature – living organisms, their ecosystems, and habitats – are vital components of its green infrastructure. In a green city, these forms of nature are preserved, maintained, and expanded for the benefit of the city’s residents. Urban nature is an ideal provider of services and a key concept for city development. Green cities have clean air and water, and pleasant streets and parks. Green cities are resilient in the face of natural disasters, and the risk of major infectious diseases spreading in such cities is low. Green cities also encourage green behaviors, such as using public transportation, and have a relatively low ecological impact.
Methodology
The present study is a mixed-methods study with an applied purpose and was conducted using a scientometric method based on the analysis of co-authorship and word co-occurrence. The study's statistical population comprises scientific, conference, and book publications by global authors in English on the green city paradigm published between 1979 and 2025. The sources of the statistical population of the present study are indexed in the Scopus scientific database. The reason for using the Scopus database is that it has more comprehensive resources than Web of Science and provides access to a larger number of resources. VOSviewer software was used to visualize the network of co-authorship and co-occurrence of words, as it was developed for the construction and visualization of bibliometric maps, and its graphical displays effectively depict the network. An advanced search for the term 'green city paradigm' in the Scopus database, without restrictions on title, abstract, or keywords, identified 1587 references between 1979 and 2025. The highest frequency of references is from 2024 (236 references). It is worth noting that the basis of the co-authorship network is 4. The basis of the co-occurrence network of terms is 5. In addition, the dimensions, components, and indicators of the green city were extracted through interviews with 15 experts.
Result and discussion
The Green City Paradigm co-authorship network comprises 121 co-authors and researchers, organized into 8 clusters. Based on the co-occurrence network, the most frequent green city words consist of China (248), sustainable development (225), urban planning (172), green space (166), urban area (161), sustainability (140), urban development (94), human (86), climate change (82), ecology (80), urbanization (74), smart city (72), urban growth (72), decision-making (66), green infrastructure (62), innovation (58), biodiversity (56), economic development (54), environmental protection (52), optimization (49), green economy (48), urban design (47), carbon (44), ecosystem services (43), land use (43), accounting Green (43), carbon emissions (42) and energy efficiency (41). The time course of the evolution of green city concepts and terms has been classified into five stages, including 2016-1979; 2016-2018; 2020-2018; 2022-2020; and 2025-2022. As a result, since 2025-2022, more attention has been paid to green attitude, green economy, green purchase intention, carbon emissions, efficiency, building information modeling, water, economic development, urban regeneration, green finance, green innovation, green logistics, green production, green technology, green technology innovation, sustainable development goals, consumption behavior, theory of planned behavior, social responsibility and overall green factor efficiency.
Conclusion
The results of the study indicate that research in this field has gradually moved from traditional urban management approaches to innovative, ecological, and participatory frameworks. The knowledge map drawn with VOSviewer identified commonalities and interactions across scientific disciplines such as geography, environment, urban planning, architecture, and the social sciences, and revealed numerous research networks centered on concepts such as "zero carbon," "resilient cities," and "public green spaces." Also, the analysis of keywords and scientific references showed that the green city paradigm is influenced by global trends, including climate change, sustainable development, and the Millennium Development Goals. In summary, the green city, as a new urban planning paradigm, is not only an innovative response to the environmental and social challenges of today's cities, but also paves the way for the realization of sustainable development at the local and national levels. Awareness of the existing knowledge base in this field can be a key to identifying research gaps, strengthening interdisciplinary collaborations, and informing urban planning policies. Therefore, continuing qualitative and quantitative studies in this field using knowledge extraction tools such as VOSviewer seems essential.
 

Abstract Introduction
Smart cities have become a central paradigm in contemporary urban research, transforming how cities are measured, compared, and governed. Yet despite the global diffusion of the concept, the internal structure of “smartness” remains uneven, multidimensional, and strongly dependent on local capacities for data production, governance, and innovation. Europe, unlike many other regions of the world, benefits from a rich statistical ecosystem that enables cities to be evaluated across multiple dimensions using reliable, comparable, and annually updated indicators. This study builds upon these datasets to develop a six-dimensional analytical geometry of smartness across European cities. It aims to move beyond simple rankings and construct a deeper structural understanding of how cities behave across economic, people, governance, mobility, environmental, and living dimensions. The broader motivation of the research is twofold. First, it seeks to reveal the spatial and conceptual diversity of European smart cities, showing that “smartness” is not a uniform path but a set of distinct patterns and typologies. Second, it aims to establish a theoretical–analytical device adaptable to other regions, including data-scarce contexts, where smart-city strategies remain fragmented due to the absence of structured statistical systems.
Theoretical Framework
The study is grounded in the six-dimensional model widely adopted in the European smart-city literature (Six Dimensions), originally articulated by Giffinger and subsequently refined by contemporary scholarship. This framework conceptualizes smartness as a balance between technological infrastructure (hard assets) and human–institutional capacity (soft assets). European Parliament reports, Urban Audit methodology, and recent studies emphasize that the most successful smart cities cultivate harmony among these dimensions rather than privileging any single component. Building on this foundation, the research introduces the concept of Smartness Geometry, which treats each city as a six-coordinate point in a multidimensional space. The geometric shape derived from these coordinates, interpreted through radar profiles, reveals whether a city is balanced, skewed, hard-infrastructure-dominated, soft-capacity-dominated, or structurally weak across multiple fronts. This theoretical lens allows smartness to be operationalized not merely as ranking but as form, pattern, and structural identity.
Methodology
The analysis uses 91 indicators extracted from two major European data repositories: Eurostat’s 2025 smart-city datasets and the 2024 Urban Audit. Each indicator corresponds to one of the six smart-city dimensions, forming an extensive database of urban performance covering economy (12 indicators), people (16), governance (12), mobility (10), environment (13), and living (28). To ensure comparability, all data older than 2015 were excluded. After cleaning and standardization, the Shannon entropy method was applied to compute dimension-specific weights, ensuring that indicators with greater variation across cities exert proportionally stronger influence. Using these weighted scores, six composite values were generated for each city, yielding the coordinates of their smartness geometry. To evaluate relative performance, four multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods were applied independently: AHP, SAW, TOPSIS, and VIKOR. These methods were intentionally selected because they differ in compensability, normalization sensitivity, and aggregation logic. AHP reflects hierarchical expert-based reasoning; SAW is fully compensatory and linear; TOPSIS emphasizes distance from ideal and anti-ideal solutions; VIKOR balances individual and group utility through a compromise model. The Friedman test was employed to assess the statistical agreement among the four methods. Finally, consensus clustering and radar-geometry analysis were used to classify the cities into geometric types of smartness.
Results and Discussion
The integrated ranking produced a clear hierarchy among European cities. The geometry of smartness across European cities can be interpreted through four distinct typological forms, each representing a structural pattern of urban performance. Type T1, the Balanced Smartness Core, reflects cities scoring between 0.70 and 0.96, primarily found in Northern and Western Europe. These cities show strong performance in living standards, mobility, governance, and environmental sustainability, resulting in a symmetrical hexagonal radar chart that signifies equilibrium across all dimensions. Type T2, the Industrial–Economic Hardware Smartness, includes cities in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, typically scoring 0.55-0.70. Their radar charts appear as elongated pentagons pulled toward economic, innovation, employment, and infrastructure dimensions, indicating strong hard capacities but less balanced soft dimensions. Type T3, the Latent Software-Based Smartness, is characteristic of Eastern European cities, with scores ranging from 0.45 to 0.55. These cities perform better on people-oriented indicators such as education, governance, and civic participation, while lagging in the economy and mobility, resulting in an asymmetric quadrilateral with elevated human/governance axes and depressed economic ones. Finally, Type T4, the Negative Consensus Core, includes structurally weak cities of Southern Europe, positioned between 0.00 and 0.40. Their profiles show severe imbalance across all dimensions, forming collapsed or fragmented polygons with sharp recessions that reflect pervasive deficits and the need for significant policy interventions. This typology demonstrates that Europe does not move toward a uniform smart-city model but toward differentiated regional patterns—each shaped by historical, economic, cultural, and governance trajectories.
Conclusion
The study offers a comprehensive analytical device for understanding smart-city performance through a multi-dimensional, geometric, and consensus-based approach. The Smartness Geometry model reveals that smartness is not simply about technological adoption but about structural harmony across economic, human, institutional, environmental, and infrastructural systems. Europe showcases both excellence and disparity: while northern cities achieve equilibrium, southern and eastern cities face multidimensional fragility. The framework developed here is transferable to other regions, provided that a reliable statistical infrastructure is established. Without consistent, transparent urban data, neither profiling, geometry, nor benchmarking is possible. Strengthening national urban statistics, creating open datasets, and adopting standardized indicators similar to those of the Urban Audit would allow governments to construct their own smartness geometry. Future research should extend this model to comparative regional studies, integrate time-series dynamics, and examine the causal mechanisms behind geometric patterns. The Smartness Geometry framework thus offers a robust, expandable system for measuring, understanding, and improving urban smartness across diverse global contexts.